Meaningfulness, or what is mindfulness in life

At trainings and psychotherapy sessions, the consultant always says that awareness (meaningfulness) is important in the client’s life. This is what the main work is aimed at. As long as the subject lives by unconscious attitudes, he will not be happy, he will be tormented by psychological and somatic problems. Awareness is the path to freedom and happiness. But this is not all we are talking about when we talk about meaningfulness.

Content

• 1 Different interpretations of perception
• 2 Levels of perception
• 3 Properties of perception 3.1 Constancy of perception

Different interpretations of perception

According to the philosophy of empiricism, perception consists of sensations or, in a later version of this philosophy, of so-called sense data (J. Moore, B. Russell, etc.)[1]. The interpretation of sensations as elementary “building blocks” of the psyche has become particularly widespread in associative psychology[2]. Philosophical criticism of the thesis about the possibility of constructing perception from sensations or sensory data was carried out, in particular, by G. Ryle and M. Merleau-Ponty. In the psychology of the 20th century, there was a rejection of the interpretation of perception as a combination of atomic sensory contents (sensations); perception began to be understood as holistic and structural. According to modern psychologist J. Gibson, perception is an active process of extracting information about the world around us, including actual actions to examine what is perceived. Perception understood in this way presents to the subject those properties of the external world that correlate with the needs of the subject and express the possibilities of his activity in a given real situation. According to W. Neisser, information is extracted based on the subject’s existing schemas of various objects and the world as a whole. Most of these schemas are acquired through experience, but there are also initial schemas that are innate. Similar ideas were also expressed by representatives of cognitive psychology, who believe that perception is the process of categorizing what is perceived, that is, assigning perceived objects to a particular class (category) of objects, starting with categories such as a table or a tree and ending with such categories as an object, causality etc. Some of these categories are a product of experience, others are innate[1].

Some psychologists continue to consider perception as a synthesis of sensations[3], while sensations are interpreted as subjective experiences of strength, quality, localization and other characteristics of the impact of stimuli on the senses arising as a result of direct sensory cognition[2].

General concept of perception

Definition 1
Perception is a holistic reflection of various objects, situations, phenomena, which arises in the process of the direct influence of physical stimuli on the surface of the receptors of various sense organs.

The main distinguishing feature of perception from sensation is the objectivity of awareness of those factors that affect a person, that is, a holistic reflection of the object.

In this case, sensations are the basis of perception. Each perceptual image is based on the interaction of a complex of sensations. This is due to the fact that any object or phenomenon is characterized by several different properties. Moreover, each of these properties can cause one or another sensation. Despite the fact that perception is based on sensations, they are not the only components of the structure of perception. This structure also includes previous experiences as well as processes for making sense of what is perceived.

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In other words, the process of perception includes, among other things, high-level mental processes, which include memory and thinking. That is why perception is considered as a human perceptual system.

Levels of perception

There are four operations or four levels of perception: detection

,
discrimination
,
identification
and
recognition
. The first two relate to perceptual actions, the latter to identification actions.

Detection

- the initial phase of development of any sensory process.
At this stage, the subject can only answer the simple question of whether there is a stimulus. The next operation of perception is discrimination
, or perception itself. Its final result is the formation of a perceptual image of the standard. In this case, the development of perception proceeds along the line of identifying specific sensory content in accordance with the characteristics of the presented material and the task facing the subject.

When the perceptual image is formed, an identification action can be carried out. Comparison and identification are required for identification.

Identification

is the identification of a directly perceived object with an image stored in memory, or the identification of two simultaneously perceived objects.
Recognition
also includes categorization (assigning an object to a certain class of objects previously perceived) and retrieving the corresponding standard from memory.

The illusion of reality

The illusion of perception occurs when reality is reflected distortedly, while the effect is sustainable. Illusions can occur in many people under the influence of physical, physiological and psychological reasons.

The breaking of a spoon in a glass of tea is classified as a physical illusion, and the splitting of the image when pressing sideways on the eyeball is considered a physiological illusion. A psychological illusion occurs when identical lines are overestimated up or down when their lengths are objectively equal.

Another example considers overvaluing the top parts of the figure. When dividing a vertical line in half, a person often makes the mistake of setting the middle much higher than the real one.

Properties of perception

• Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but as images that make up specific objects.
• Structurality - the object is perceived by consciousness as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.
• Apperception - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.
• Constancy is the constancy of the perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes.
• Selectivity is the preferential selection of some objects over others.
• Meaningfulness - an object is consciously perceived, mentally named (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class.

Understanding consists of stages:

1. Selection is the selection of an object of perception from the flow of information
2. Organization - an object is identified by a set of characteristics
3. Categorization and assignment to an object of properties of objects of this class

Constancy of perception

Constancy is the constancy of perception of the same distal object when the proximal stimulus changes [4], the ability to recognize the same object on the basis of differing sensory information (sensations). An object perceived in different circumstances and conditions is considered as one and the same. Thus, the brightness of an object, as a quantity characterizing reflected light, changes if you move it from a dimly lit room to a room with good lighting. Nevertheless, when the proximal stimulus information changes, the object is considered to be the same in both cases. We can highlight the constancy of such object properties as size, shape, brightness, color. The constancy of shape perception is studied using a setup, the main elements of which are a standard square (with a side of 10 cm) and a measuring rectangle (10 cm wide). The standard square in the experiment is always inclined towards the observer, and the plane of the measuring rectangle should be perpendicular to the axis of vision of the subject. The height of the measuring rectangle can be changed by the subject using a special button. The subject is asked to select the height of the measuring rectangle so that it has the same visible shape as the tilted standard square. In the experiment, the inclination of the standard square is varied (25°, 30°, 35° and 40°). For each standard inclination value, the subject adjusts the height of the meter four times. This provides data for calculating the coefficient of constancy.

The constancy of perception is measured by the constancy coefficient according to the Brunswik-Thouless formula:

K = V − PR − P {\displaystyle K={\frac {VP}{RP}}}

where V {\displaystyle V} is the height of the rectangular meter that the subject installed in an effort to equalize the visible shapes of the meter and the standard, R {\displaystyle R} is the height of the standard square, P = R ⋅ cos ⁡ α {\displaystyle P=R\ cdot \cos \alpha } , where α {\displaystyle \alpha } is the angle of inclination of the reference square.

The constancy of shape perception in experiments with visual field inversion using an invertoscope drops to zero, and during the adaptation process it is restored, reaching the pre-experimental level. Experiments with inversion of the human visual field are carried out to study the mechanisms of constancy of visual perception.

One explanation for the constancy of perception is based on the distinction between perception and sensitivity (sensation). Perception of the actual properties of objects is a subjective mental process that connects sensations (sensory experience) of the properties of an object with other stimulus information.

An example of the Ponzo illusion. Both horizontal lines are the same size.

Thus, the property of the size of an object is associated with the distance to the object, the brightness of the object is associated with illumination. A subjective mental process of perception that allows a person to recognize an object as the same even if it is located at different distances from it (the object in this case has a different angular size - if it is at a large distance - a small angular size, if at a small distance - a large angular size size) in some cases is accompanied by “regression to actual objects”[5]. An example of regression to real objects as a consequence of constancy of perception is optical illusions. Thus, the Ponzo illusion shows how the regression carried out by perception to real objects that are located in the three-dimensional world, in the case of a two-dimensional object - a drawing - makes a person perceive a horizontal segment at the converging ends of vertical lines as longer than a segment located at the divergent ends of the same vertical lines, as if the latter is located “closer” to the observer.

Basic types of perception

Currently, perception in psychology can be grouped on several grounds.

One criterion for dividing perception into types was differentiation in analyzers that take an active part in the processes of perception.

The classification is based on which analyzer plays the leading role in perception and the predominant functional purpose. In simple words, this division is based on the sense organs that perform perception. In this regard, the following types of perception are distinguished:

• Visual;
• Acoustic;
• Tactile;
• Kinesthetic;
• Olfactory;
• Tasty.

Another basis for the classification of perception is the forms of existence of matter: space, time and movement. They correspond to the following types of perception:

1. Spatial perception;
2. Temporal perception;
3. Motor perception.

Temporal perception is an unbiased characteristic of the real duration, pace, speed and phasing of events occurring in the surrounding world and society. The fundamental principle of temporal perception is a change in the rhythms of the processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the brain. In this case, temporary perception is realized with the involvement of the senses.

Spatial perception occurs through the use of the senses and visual expression of the areal qualities of objects, their relationships and development dynamics. The process of spatial perception of space itself is based on the common activity of sensory analyzers: visual, motor, cutaneous and vestibular.

Motor perception is realized through the activation of the organs of vision, namely the retina: when an object begins to move, it produces it dynamically, changing its location. It encourages gradual activation of different segments of the retina.

Other types of perception can be distinguished. These include:

1. The perception of complex phonemes is an activity associated with the reception and processing by the hearing organs, in particular their analytical part, of sounds that have a rather complex spectral structure, which is influenced by the time factor. Complex sounds are characterized by the fact that they can change their structural structure according to a certain algorithm. These sounds are not only distinguished by their complex spectral structure, but also have a rhythm that is not easy to perceive and reproduce. The sources of these sounds are characterized by great diversity. They can vary in quality - be voiced or dull, high or low, sharp or soft, appear in the form of single impulses that are repeated at certain time intervals. In order to correctly perceive such sounds, it is necessary to pay attention to the frequency of their repetitions and the intervals at which which sounds are repeated;
2. The process of perceiving verbal communication is the activity of the human hearing system associated with the construction of a subjective image of a conscious message through the active work of the auditory organs. This perception works at the sensory level. In the structure of the word, signal sounds are isolated and recognized. This is how awareness occurs of the meaning heard, be it a single word, phrase or sentence, as well as a complete oral message. The thought process plays a huge role in this perception. The effectiveness of perception depends on how developed it is;
3. Perception of another person is the process of a person’s cognition of another person, realized in the process of building communication connections. The process of perceiving another person necessarily occurs in the process of their communication. at the same time, it takes place in several stages: the formation of a mental reflection based on emotions, sensory perceptions and sensations, the inclusion of the thought process, the conscious perception of another personality, its main qualities and developmental features.

Perception factors

External

• size
• intensity (physical or emotional)
• contrast (contradiction with the surroundings)
• movement
• repeatability
• novelty and recognition

Domestic

• stereotypy of perception, set of perception: expectation to see what should be seen based on past experience
• needs and motivation: a person sees what he needs or what he considers important
• experience: a person perceives that aspect of a stimulus that has been taught by past experience
• self-concept: the perception of the world is grouped around the perception of oneself
• personal characteristics: optimists see the world and events in a positive light, pessimists, on the contrary, in an unfavorable one

Three mechanisms of perception selectivity[6]:

• resonance principle - what corresponds to the needs and values ​​of the individual is perceived faster than what does not correspond
• principle of protection - something that opposes a person’s expectations is perceived worse
• principle of vigilance - what threatens a person’s psyche is recognized faster than others

Lecture 8. The essence and basic qualities of perception

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What is perception

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Reception and processing by a person of information received through the senses ends with the appearance of images of objects or phenomena. The process of forming these images is called perception
(sometimes the term
“perception”, “perceptual process” is also used)
.
Modern views on the process of perception have their origins in two opposing theories. One of them is known as the Gestalt
(image) theory.
Adherents of this concept believed that the nervous system of animals and humans perceives not individual external stimuli, but their complexes: for example, the shape, color and movement of an object are perceived as a whole, and not separately. In contrast to this theory, behaviorists argued that only elementary (unimodal) sensory functions really exist,
and attributed the ability to synthesize only to the brain. Modern science is trying to reconcile these two extreme theories. It is assumed that perception is initially complex, but the “integrity of the image” is still a product of the synthesizing activity of the cerebral cortex. The main qualities of perception include the following:

1. Perception depends on past experience, on the content of a person’s mental activity. This feature is called apperception.
   When the brain receives incomplete, ambiguous or contradictory data, it usually interprets them in accordance with an already established system of images, knowledge, content and tasks of the activity being performed, individual psychological differences (in terms of needs, inclinations, motives, emotional states). Kittens raised in a cage with only vertical lines later found themselves unable to recognize horizontal lines. Also, people who live in round dwellings (Aleuts) have difficulty finding their way around our houses with an abundance of vertical and horizontal straight lines. The apperception factor explains significant differences in the perception of the same phenomena by different people or by the same person under different conditions and at different times.
2. The world in which we exist is perceived by us not only as organized and structured, but also as relatively stable and constant. Behind the established images of objects, perception retains both size and color, no matter from what distance we look at them and at what angle we see them. A white shirt remains white for us both in bright light and in the shade. But if we saw only a small part of it through the hole, it would seem rather gray to us in the shadow. This feature of perception is called constancy.
3. A person perceives the world not in the form of a set of unrelated sensations or states of his organs, but in the form of separate objects that exist independently of him and oppose him, that is, perception is objective in nature.
4. Perception, as it were, “completes” the images of the objects it perceives, supplementing the data of sensations with the necessary elements. This is the integrity of perception.
5. Perception is not limited to the formation of new images; a person is able to realize the processes of “his” perception, which allows us to talk about the meaningful generalized nature of perception, its categorical nature.

Perception of movement and space

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In accordance with which analyzer dominates, visual, auditory, kinesthetic: tactile, olfactory and gustatory perceptions are distinguished.
From the point of view of a person’s orientation in the world around him, motor (kinesthetic) sensations are of particular importance; visual perception is associated with eye movement; in taste perception, the movement of the tongue, etc., is of great importance. We are able to perceive the movement of objects around us due to the fact that the movement usually occurs against some background, this allows the retina of the eye to consistently reproduce the changes that occur in the position of moving bodies in relation to those elements in front of or behind which the object moves. Interestingly, in the dark, a stationary luminous point appears to be moving (autokinetic effect). The perception of apparent motion is determined by data on the spatial position of objects, that is, it is associated with the visual perception of the degree of distance of an object and an assessment of the direction in which a particular object is located. The perception of space is based on the perception of the size and shape of objects through the synthesis of visual, muscle and tactile sensations, as well as on the perception of the volume and distance of objects, which is provided by binocular vision. Perception of time

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The difficulty in explaining how we perceive the passage of time is that the perception of time has no obvious physical stimulus.
Of course, physical time, that is, the duration of objective processes, can easily be measured, but duration itself is not a stimulus in the usual sense of the word, that is, there is no object whose energy would affect some time receptor (as do light or sound waves). It has not yet been possible to discover a mechanism that directly or indirectly converts physical time intervals into corresponding sensory signals. Time-related physiological processes remain the most popular candidates for this mechanism. These “biological clocks” were the heart rate and metabolism (that is, metabolic processes) of the body. It has been established quite accurately that the perception of time is changed by certain medications that primarily affect the rhythm of our body. Quinine and alcohol make time pass more slowly. Caffeine seems to speed it up, much like a fever. On the other hand, marijuana and hashish have, although a strong, but inconsistent effect on the perception of time; they can lead to both acceleration and deceleration of subjective time. All influences that accelerate processes in the body speed up the passage of time for us, and physiological depressants slow it down. There is a tendency to overestimate time intervals less than one second and underestimate intervals greater than one second. If you mark the beginning and end of periods of time with two clicks, and leave a pause between them (a filled interval), then it will be perceived as shorter than an equal period, filled with a series of clicks. It is curious that it seems to take a shorter time to pronounce a meaningful sentence than a set of meaningless syllables pronounced in the same amount of time. A time interval filled with intense activity seems longer; intervals that are not filled with significant events for a person are systematically overestimated (in duration). We are aware of duration (as well as space) only when there is a temporary interest between the moment of awakening a need and the moment of its satisfaction, that is, when we perceive time as an obstacle (we are waiting for something or someone). Otherwise, we do not pay attention to our experience of time. This follows the basic law of time perception, formulated by Wundt: “Whenever we pay our attention to the passage of time, it seems longer.” A minute will never seem so long to us as when we follow the clock hand passing 60 divisions. Perception of time

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There are large individual differences in the ability to judge time.
Experiments have shown that the same time can pass for a ten-year-old child five times faster than for a sixty-year-old person. For the same subject, the perception of time varies enormously depending on the mental and physical state. When you are depressed or frustrated, time passes slowly. Time, rich in past experiences and activities, is remembered as longer, and a long period of life, filled with uninteresting events, is remembered as having passed quickly. A length of time less than 5 minutes during memory usually seems larger than its value, and longer periods are remembered as smaller. Our ability to judge the duration of time allows us to form a temporal dimension - a time axis on which we more or less accurately place events. The current moment (now) marks a special point on this axis, the events of the past are placed before, and the events of the expected future are located after this point. This general perception of the relationship between the present and the future is called “time perspective.” The basic mechanisms of perception of space and time are apparently innate. In the process of life, under certain conditions, they seem to be built upon the parameters of these conditions, but the general structural elements of such a superstructure easily disintegrate in qualitatively new conditions. Experiments with complete sensory isolation provided stunning data. People were immersed in a vessel of water at a comfortable temperature, and they did not see or hear anything, and the coating on their hands prevented them from receiving tactile sensations. The subjects soon discovered that the structure of their perceptual field began to change, and hallucinations and self-suggested perceptions of time became more and more frequent. When the period of isolation ended, a loss of ability to navigate the outside world was usually discovered. These people were unable to distinguish between the shapes of objects (a ball and a pyramid), and sometimes even perceived these shapes in a modified form (they called the trapezoid a square). They saw a color change where it did not occur, etc. Impaired perception

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With sudden physical or emotional fatigue, sometimes there is an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli. Daylight suddenly blinds, the color of surrounding objects becomes unusually bright. The sounds are deafening, the slamming of a door sounds like a gunshot, the clinking of dishes becomes unbearable. The smell is perceived acutely, causing severe irritation. Tissues touching the body appear rough and rough. These changes in perception are called hypersthesia.
The opposite condition is
hypoesthesia
, which is expressed in a decrease in susceptibility to external stimuli and is associated with mental fatigue.
The surroundings become dim, vague, losing sensory concreteness. Objects seem to be stripped of their colors, everything looks faded and shapeless. Sounds come muffled, the voices of others lose their intonation. Everything seems inactive, frozen. Hallucinations
are usually called perceptions that occur without the presence of a real object (visions, ghostly sounds, voices, smells, etc.).
Hallucinations are, as a rule, a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external actual impressions, but with internal images. For a person in the grip of hallucinations, they are experienced as truly perceived, that is, people during hallucinations actually see, hear, smell, and do not imagine or imagine. For a hallucinating subject, sensory sensations are as valid as those emanating from the objective world. The greatest interest is usually caused by visual hallucinations, which are distinguished by an unusual variety of vision; they can be shapeless flames, smoke, fog, or, conversely, seem clearer than images of real objects. The size of the visions is also characterized by a large amplitude: there are both reduced and enlarged, gigantic. Visual hallucinations can be colorless, but more often they are naturally or extremely intensely colored, usually bright red or blue. Visions can be moving or motionless, with unchanged content (stable hallucinations) and constantly changing in the form of various events played out, as on stage or in a movie (scene-like hallucinations). Single images (single hallucinations), parts of objects, bodies (one eye, half a face, ear), crowds of people, flocks of animals, insects, fantastic creatures appear. The content of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional impact: it can frighten, cause horror, or, on the contrary, interest, admiration, even admiration. Illusions, that is, erroneous perceptions of real things or phenomena, should be distinguished from hallucinations. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously, is the main feature of illusions, usually divided into affective, verbal (verbal) and pareidolic. Affective
(affect is short-term, strong emotional arousal)
illusions
are most often caused by fear or an anxious, depressed mood.
In this state, even clothes hanging on a hanger can seem like a robber, and a random passer-by can seem like a rapist and murderer. Verbal illusions
consist in a false perception of the content of actually occurring conversations of others;
it seems to the person that these conversations contain hints of some of his unseemly actions, bullying, hidden threats against him. Very interesting and indicative are pereidolic illusions, usually caused by a decrease in the tone of mental activity and general passivity. Ordinary patterns on wallpaper, cracks on the walls or ceiling, various light and shadows are perceived as bright paintings, fairy-tale characters, fantastic monsters, unusual plants, colorful panoramas. >>> Literature GO TO CONTENTS TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Forms and principles of perception

• Figure - background - perception distinguishes the figure from the background.
• Constancy - objects are perceived the same for a long time.
• Grouping—uniform stimuli are grouped into structures.

Grouping principles:

• Proximity—things located nearby are perceived together.
• Similarity—that which is similar in some way is perceived together.
• Closedness - a person tends to fill in the gaps in the figure.
• Integrity - a person tends to see continuous forms rather than complex combinations.
• Contiguity - what is close in time and space is perceived as one.
• Common zone - stimuli identified in one zone are perceived as a group.

Perception in theory of mind

Perception is one of the mental functions, a complex process of receiving and transforming sensory information, forming a subjective holistic image of an object that affects analyzers through a set of sensations initiated by this object.

As a form of sensory reflection of an object, perception includes the detection of the object as a whole, the discrimination of individual features in the object, the identification of informative content in it that is adequate to the purpose of the action, and the formation of a sensory image.

If sensations reflect only individual properties of objects, then the synthesis of many sensations of an object creates a holistic picture in which the entire object, in the totality of its properties, is presented as a unit of interaction. This picture is called the subjective perception of an object.

Social perception

Social perception

- perception aimed at creating an idea about oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena.

The term was proposed by Jerome Bruner in 1947 to refer to the phenomena of social determination of perceptual processes. The modern interpretation of the term was given within the framework of social psychology.

The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

Effects of perception

Social perception is characterized by certain special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracy, called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.

• Effects of stereotyping:

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.
• Sequence Effects:

• The primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.
• The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given greater importance than all the information received about him previously.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personal characteristic.
• The effect of presence - the better a person knows something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
• Advance effect - the absence of previously attributed non-existent advantages leads to disappointment.
• The effect of leniency - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a permissive and, to some extent, democratic style).
• The effect of hyper-demandingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of his subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
• The effect of physiognomic reduction - the conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
• Beauty effect - a more attractive person is assigned more positive traits.
• The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
• In-group favoritism - “insiders” seem better.

• The effect of negative asymmetry in initial self-esteem—over time, there is a tendency toward the opposite of in-group favoritism.

• Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him the way he treats the “other.”
• The phenomenon of assumption of similarity - a person believes that “their own people” treat other people the same way as he does.
• Projection effect - a person assumes that others have the same qualities as him.
• The phenomenon of ignoring the information value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

Attribution

Attribution

- attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.

Causal attribution is understood as the interpretation of a communication partner’s behavior by making assumptions about his motives, intentions, emotions, reasons for behavior, personality traits, and then attributing them to the partner. Causal attribution determines social perception (perception) the more, the greater the deficit of information about the communication partner. The results of attribution can become material for the formation of social stereotypes. Stereotyping perception leads to two different consequences. Firstly, to simplify the knowledge of another person (people). Secondly, to the formation of prejudices towards representatives of various social groups (professional, socio-economic, ethnic, etc.)

Impression

Impression

- an opinion, an assessment formed after meeting or coming into contact with someone.

Forming an impression

Forming an impression

- the process of creating one's impressions of others.

The impressions are:

• Behavior patterns
• Abstractions

Impression management

Impression management

- behavior aimed at forming and controlling other people’s impressions of oneself.

Impression management tactics:

• Strengthening your own position
• Strengthening the interlocutor's position

Self-presentation

- behavior aimed at creating a favorable or corresponding to someone's ideals impression of oneself.

According to Gordon's 1996 study, the success rate of impression management tactics breaks down as follows:[7]

1. Presenting your interlocutor in the best light
2. Agree with the opinion of the interlocutor.
3. Self-presentation
4. Combination 1-3
5. Provision of services

Ways to interpret personality by appearance

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A person interprets another person primarily based on appearance. Experimentally, it was possible to establish four main ways of interpreting a person by appearance:

• Analytical, namely elements of appearance are associated with a person’s character. For example, tightly compressed lips are a sign of severity, wide eyes are a sign of frankness, and so on.
• Emotional, that is, emotional qualities. They are attributed to a person based on external attractiveness.
• Individual-associative. A person is prescribed the quality of another person who is externally similar to him and with whom the analyzer has previously met.
• Socially associative. A person is prescribed by the quality of the group of people to whom he externally belongs. For example, goths are attributed the qualities of toughness, swagger, communists - talkativeness, grumpiness, and so on.

The analysis of the listed qualities occurs during direct communication between people. Initially, attention is paid to appearance, especially facial features. Further, in the course of communication, a general idea of ​​character, intellectual and emotional abilities, and temperament is formed, which are very often associated with a person’s professional qualities and his type of activity. Peculiarities of perception can vary not only based on the nature of people’s temperament, but based on age.

Figure 1. Human perception of the environment. Author24 - online exchange of student work

Direct perception of mathematical properties and relationships

The perception of people and higher animals includes the function of directly determining various mathematical properties and relationships, including quantitative ones.

Humans and animals have a direct perception of multiplicity, allowing them to almost instantly compare the sizes of different groups of objects, just as infants have the ability to determine the ratio of the sizes of groups without calculations when the number of objects in them is 1:2. Adults can define more complex 7:8 ratios.[8] There is information that some reindeer herders can instantly determine the loss of several heads in one and a half to two thousand reindeer herds. However, they did not have the skills to count large quantities.

Another universal perceptual ability is subitization, the ability to instantly determine the number of objects in small groups (up to four).[8]

The first systematic studies of the development of direct perception of mathematical characteristics, as part of the study of the development of general cognitive abilities of children, were carried out by the French psychologist Piaget.

Notes

1. ↑ 123
   Perception / Lektorsky V. A. // New philosophical encyclopedia: in 4 volumes / prev. scientific-ed. Council V. S. Stepin. — 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Mysl, 2010. - 2816 p.
2. ↑ 12
   Sensation // Big psychological dictionary. - OLMA-PRESS, 2004.
3. Zinchenko V.
   Perception // Big psychological dictionary. - OLMA-PRESS, 2004.
4. Gillam, B. (2000). Perceptual constancies. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 89-93). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
5. Sedgwick. H. A. (1986). Space perception. In K. Boff, L. Kaufman, & J. Thomas (Eds.). Handbook of perception and human performance (Vol. I. chap. 21). New York: Wiley.
6. Bruner and Postman
7. Baron R., Breen D., Johnson B.
   - Social psychology: key ideas. 4th ed. - St. Petersburg, 2003.
8. ↑ 12
   Pillay, Srini. Jew's harp, dab, dab and try. Unlock the power of a relaxed brain / Srini Pillay; lane from English E. Petrova; [scient. ed. K. Betz]. - M.: Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 2021. ISBN 978-5-00100-996-2