Structure and function of the lenticular nucleus

The human brain is considered the most complex organ from a physiological point of view. Scientists are still studying the relationship of the central nervous system with other organs and systems, as well as the internal process of self-regulation in the organ. Particular attention is paid to the accumulation of gray matter in the deep parts of the central nervous system. The basal ganglia of the brain regulate all motor functions and control the autonomic nervous system.

What are the basal ganglia?

The basal or subcortical ganglia in the brain are small collections of gray matter. The gray mass consists of nerve ganglia (axons, dendrites and auxiliary nervous tissue), which, when connected to each other, form a kind of chain.

The basal ganglia lie in deep brain structures and act as a link for transmitting information between the right and left hemispheres. This connection allows the brain to function as a single mechanism.

Long processes extending from the nerve ganglia (axons) ensure the reception and transmission of impulses to other parts of the central nervous system. The basal ganglia, or “subcortex,” interact closely with the motor control systems (corticospinal and cerebellar).

Inclusions of the gray substance are located in the thickness of the white matter. At the stage of embryogenesis, the basal ganglia are formed from a temporary structure - the ganglion tubercle. It acts as a source of neurons for the formation of mature structures of the central nervous system.

The nuclei are located near the base of the brain, slightly to the side of the optic thalamus. The basal ganglia are anatomically a structural unit of the forebrain.

The functionality of the “subcortex” is combined into two systems:

1. Striopallidal - acts as the main transmitter of information between the trunk of the central nervous system and the cortex.
2. Limbic - provides communication between structures that are located between the thalamic region.

These systems include different structural units of the “subcortex”.

Caudate nucleus Lenticular nucleus

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Shell

Pale ball

In the thickness of the white matter of each cerebral hemisphere there are accumulations of gray matter, forming separately lying nuclei (Fig. 7). These nuclei lie closer to the base of the brain and are called basal (subcortical, central). These include: 1) the striatum, which in lower vertebrates constitutes the predominant mass of the hemispheres; 2) fence; 3) amygdala.

Let's consider the structure of the striatum (corpus striatum), which in sections of the brain looks like alternating stripes of gray and white matter. Most medially and in front is: a) the caudate nucleus, located lateral and superior to the thalamus, being separated from it by the knee of the internal capsule. The nucleus has a head located in the frontal lobe, protruding into the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle and adjacent to the anterior perforated substance. The body of the caudate nucleus lies under the parietal lobe, limiting the central part of the lateral ventricle on the lateral side. The tail of the nucleus participates in the formation of the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle and reaches the amygdala, which lies in the anteromedial parts of the temporal lobe (posterior to the anterior perforated substance); b) lentiform nucleus - located lateral to the caudate nucleus. A layer of white matter - the internal capsule - separates the lenticular nucleus from the caudate nucleus and from the thalamus.

The lower surface of the anterior part of the lentiform nucleus is adjacent to the anterior perforated substance and is connected to the caudate nucleus. The medial part of the lenticular nucleus in a horizontal section of the brain narrows and is angled towards the knee of the internal capsule, located on the border of the thalamus and the head of the caudate nucleus. The convex lateral surface of the lenticular nucleus faces the base of the insular lobe of the cerebral hemisphere.

Fig.7. Frontal section of the brain at the level of the mastoid bodies.

1 – choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle (central part), 2 – thalamus, 3 – internal capsule, 4 – insular cortex, 5 – fence, 6 – amygdala, 7 – optic tract, 8 – mastoid body, 9 – globus pallidus, 10 – putamen, 11 – fornix, 12 – caudate nucleus, 13 – corpus callosum.

On the frontal section of the brain, the lenticular nucleus also has the shape of a triangle, the apex of which faces the medial side and the base faces the lateral side (Fig. 7). Two parallel vertical layers of white matter divide the lenticular nucleus into three parts. The darker shell lies most laterally, the “globus pallidus” is located more medially, consisting of two plates: medial and lateral. The caudate nucleus and putamen belong to phylogenetically newer formations, while the globus pallidus belongs to older ones. The nuclei of the striatum form the striopallidal system, which, in turn, belongs to the extrapyramidal system involved in the control of movements and regulation of muscle tone (Fig.).

Fig.8. Horizontal section of the brain. Basal ganglia.

1–cerebral cortex (cloak), 2–genu of the corpus callosum, 3–anterior horn of the lateral ventricle, 4–internal capsule, 5–external capsule, 6–fence, 7–outermost capsule, 8–putamen, 9–globus pallidus , 10–III ventricle, 11–posterior horn of the lateral ventricle, 12–optic tubercle, 13–cortical substance (bark) of the insula, 14–head

Thin vertical fence

, lying in the white matter of the hemisphere on the side of the shell, is separated from the shell by the outer capsule, and from the insular cortex by the outermost capsule.

The caudate nucleus and putamen receive descending connections primarily from the extrapyramidal cortex through the subcallosal fasciculus. Other areas of the cerebral cortex also send large numbers of axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen.

The main part of the axons of the caudate nucleus and putamen goes to the globus pallidus, from here to the thalamus, and only from it to the sensory fields. Consequently, there is a vicious circle of connections between these formations. The caudate nucleus and putamen also have functional connections with structures lying outside this circle: with the substantia nigra, red nucleus, Lewis body (subthalamic nucleus), vestibular nuclei, cerebellum, gamma cells of the spinal cord.

The abundance and nature of the connections between the caudate nucleus and the putamen indicate their participation in integrative processes, the organization and regulation of movements, and the regulation of the work of vegetative organs.

The medial nuclei of the thalamus have direct connections with the caudate nucleus, as evidenced by the reaction of its neurons, which occurs 2-4 ms after stimulation of the thalamus. The reaction of neurons in the caudate nucleus is caused by skin irritations, light and sound stimuli.

With a lack of dopamine in the caudate nucleus (for example, with dysfunction of the substantia nigra), the globus pallidus is disinhibited, activating the spinal-stem systems, which leads to motor disorders in the form of muscle rigidity.

The caudate nucleus and globus pallidus take part in such integrative processes as conditioned reflex activity and motor activity. This is detected by stimulation of the caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus, destruction and by recording electrical activity.

Direct stimulation of some zones of the caudate nucleus causes the head to turn in the direction opposite to the stimulated hemisphere, and the animal begins to move in a circle, i.e. a so-called circulatory reaction occurs.

In humans, stimulation of the caudate nucleus during a neurosurgical operation disrupts speech contact with the patient: if the patient said something, he becomes silent, and after the irritation stops he does not remember that he was addressed. In cases of brain injury with irritation of the head of the caudate nucleus, patients experience retro-, antero-, retroanterograde amnesia.

Stimulation of the caudate nucleus can completely prevent the perception of painful, visual, auditory and other types of stimulation. Irritation of the ventral region of the caudate nucleus reduces, and the dorsal region increases salivation.

In case of damage to the caudate nucleus, significant disorders of higher nervous activity, difficulty in orientation in space, memory impairment, and slowed growth of the body are observed. After bilateral damage to the caudate nucleus, conditioned reflexes disappear for a long period of time, the development of new reflexes becomes difficult, general behavior is characterized by stagnation, inertia, and difficulty switching. When affecting the caudate nucleus, in addition to disorders of higher nervous activity, movement disorders are noted. Many authors note that in different animals, with bilateral damage to the striatum, an uncontrollable desire to move forward appears, while with unilateral damage, manege movements occur.

The shell is characterized by participation in the organization of eating behavior: food search, food orientation, food capture and digestion; a number of trophic disorders of the skin and internal organs occur when the function of the shell is impaired. Irritation of the shell leads to changes in breathing and salivation.

As mentioned earlier, irritation of the caudate nucleus inhibits the conditioned reflex at all stages of its implementation. At the same time, irritation of the caudate nucleus prevents the extinction of the conditioned reflex, i.e. development of inhibition; the animal ceases to perceive the new environment. Considering that stimulation of the caudate nucleus leads to inhibition of the conditioned reflex, one would expect that destruction of the caudate nucleus causes facilitation of conditioned reflex activity. But it turned out that the destruction of the caudate nucleus also leads to inhibition of conditioned reflex activity. Apparently, the function of the caudate nucleus is not simply inhibitory, but lies in the correlation and integration of RAM processes. This is also confirmed by the fact that information from different sensory systems converges on the neurons of the caudate nucleus, since most of these neurons are polysensory.

The globus pallidus has predominantly large type 1 Golgi neurons. Connections between the globus pallidus and the thalamus, putamen, caudate nucleus, midbrain, hypothalamus, and somatosensory system indicate its participation in the organization of simple and complex forms of behavior.

Stimulation of the globus pallidus with the help of implanted electrodes causes contraction of the muscles of the limbs, activation or inhibition of gamma motor neurons of the spinal cord.

Stimulation of the globus pallidus, unlike stimulation of the caudate nucleus, does not cause inhibition, but provokes an orienting reaction, movements of the limbs, feeding behavior (sniffing, chewing, swallowing, etc.).

Damage to the globus pallidus causes in people hypomimia, mask-like appearance of the face, tremor of the head and limbs (and this tremor disappears at rest, during sleep and intensifies with movements), and monotony of speech. When the globus pallidus is damaged, myoclonus is observed - rapid twitching of the muscles of certain groups or individual muscles of the arms, back, and face.

In the first hours after damage to the globus pallidus in an acute experiment on animals, motor activity sharply decreased, movements were characterized by incoordination, the presence of incomplete incoordination, incomplete movements was noted, and when sitting there was a drooping posture. Having started moving, the animal could not stop for a long time. In a person with dysfunction of the globus pallidus, the onset of movements is difficult, auxiliary and reactive movements disappear when standing up, friendly movements of the arms when walking are disrupted, and a symptom of propulsion appears: long-term preparation for movement, then rapid movement and stopping. Such cycles are repeated many times in patients.

The fence contains polymorphic neurons of different types. It forms connections primarily with the cerebral cortex.

The deep localization and small size of the fence present certain difficulties for its physiological study. This nucleus is shaped like a narrow strip of gray matter located beneath the cerebral cortex deep in the white matter.

Stimulation of the fence causes an indicative reaction, turning the head in the direction of irritation, chewing, swallowing, and sometimes vomiting movements. Irritation from the fence inhibits the conditioned reflex to light and has little effect on the conditioned reflex to sound. Stimulation of the fence during eating inhibits the process of eating food.

It is known that the thickness of the fence of the left hemisphere in humans is somewhat greater than that of the right; when the right hemisphere fence is damaged, speech disorder is observed.

Thus, the basal ganglia of the brain are integrative centers for the organization of motor skills, emotions, and higher nervous activity, and each of these functions can be enhanced or inhibited by the activation of individual formations of the basal ganglia.

The amygdala lies in the white matter of the temporal lobe of the hemisphere, approximately 1.5–2 cm posterior to the temporal pole. The amygdala (corpus amygdoloideum), amygdala, is a subcortical structure of the limbic system, located deep in the temporal lobe of the brain. The neurons of the amygdala are diverse in form, function and neurochemical processes in them. The functions of the amygdala are associated with the provision of defensive behavior, autonomic, motor, emotional reactions, and the motivation of conditioned reflex behavior.

The electrical activity of the tonsils is characterized by oscillations of different amplitudes and frequencies. Background rhythms can correlate with the rhythm of breathing and heart contractions.

The tonsils react with many of their nuclei to visual, auditory, interoceptive, olfactory, skin irritations, and all these irritations cause changes in the activity of any of the nuclei of the amygdala, i.e. The amygdala nuclei are multisensory. The reaction of the nucleus to external stimuli lasts, as a rule, up to 85 ms, i.e. significantly less than the reaction to similar stimulation of the neocortex.

Neurons have pronounced spontaneous activity, which can be enhanced or inhibited by sensory stimulation. Many neurons are multimodal and multisensory and fire synchronously with the theta rhythm.

Irritation of the nuclei of the amygdala creates a pronounced parasympathetic effect on the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, leads to a decrease (rarely to an increase) in blood pressure, a decrease in heart rate, disruption of the conduction of excitation through the conduction system of the heart, the occurrence of arrhythmia and extrasystole. In this case, vascular tone may not change.

The slowdown in the rhythm of heart contractions when affecting the tonsils has a long latent period and has a long-lasting effect

Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression and sometimes a cough reaction.

With artificial activation of the tonsil, reactions of sniffing, licking, chewing, swallowing, salivation, changes in the peristalsis of the small intestine appear, and the effects occur with a long latent period (up to 30-45 s after irritation). Stimulation of the tonsils against the background of active contractions of the stomach or intestines inhibits these contractions.

The various effects of irritation of the tonsils are due to their connection with the hypothalamus, which regulates the functioning of internal organs.

Damage to the amygdala in animals reduces the adequate preparation of the autonomic nervous system for the organization and implementation of behavioral reactions, leading to hypersexuality, the disappearance of fear, calmness, and inability to rage and aggression. Animals become gullible. For example, monkeys with a damaged amygdala calmly approach a viper that previously caused them horror and flight. Apparently, in case of damage to the tonsils, some innate unconditioned reflexes that implement the memory of danger disappear.

The white matter of the hemisphere includes the internal capsule and fibers, which have different directions. The following types of fibers should be distinguished: 1) fibers passing to the other hemisphere of the brain through its commissures (corpus callosum, anterior commissure, fornix commissure) and heading to the cortex and basal ganglia of the other side (commissural fibers); 2) systems of fibers connecting areas of the cortex and subcortical centers within one half of the brain (associative); 3) fibers going from the cerebral hemisphere to its underlying parts, to the spinal cord and in the opposite direction from these formations (projection fibers).

The next section of the telencephalon is the corpus callosum, which is formed by commissural fibers connecting both hemispheres. The free upper surface of the corpus callosum, facing the longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum, is covered with a thin plate of gray matter. The middle part of the corpus callosum is its trunk

– in front it bends downwards, forming
a knee
of the corpus callosum, which, thinning, passes into
the beak
, which continues downwards into
the terminal (border) plate.
The thickened posterior part of the corpus callosum ends freely in the form of a ridge. The fibers of the corpus callosum form its radiance in each hemisphere of the cerebrum. The genu corpus callosum fibers connect the cortex of the frontal lobes of the right and left hemispheres. Brainstem fibers connect the gray matter of the parietal and temporal lobes. The roller contains fibers connecting the cortex of the occipital lobes. The areas of the frontal, parietal and occipital lobes of each hemisphere are separated from the corpus callosum by the groove of the same name.

Please note that under the corpus callosum there is a thin white plate - the fornix

, consisting of two arched strands connected in its middle part by a transverse commissure of the arch (Fig.). The body of the vault, gradually moving away in the anterior part from the corpus callosum, arches forward and downward and continues into the column of the vault. The lower part of each column of the fornix first approaches the terminal plate, and then the columns of the fornix diverge laterally and are directed downward and posteriorly, ending in the mastoid bodies.

Between the crura of the fornix at the back and the terminal lamina at the front there is a transverse anterior (white) commissure

, which, along with the corpus callosum, connects both hemispheres of the cerebrum.

Posteriorly, the body of the fornix continues into the flat peduncle of the fornix, fused with the lower surface of the corpus callosum. The crus of the fornix gradually moves laterally and downwards, separates from the corpus callosum, becomes even more dense and on one side fuses with the hippocampus, forming the hippocampal fimbria. The free side of the fimbria, facing the cavity of the lower horn of the lateral ventricle, ends in the hook, connecting the temporal lobe of the telencephalon with the diencephalon.

The area bounded above and in front by the corpus callosum, below by its beak, terminal plate and anterior commissure, behind by the crus of the fornix, is occupied on each side by a sagittally located thin plate - the transparent septum. Between the plates of the transparent septum there is a narrow sagittal cavity of the same name containing a transparent liquid. The lamina pellucidum is the medial wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.

Let's consider the structure of the internal capsule (capsula internet) - a thick, angled plate of white matter, bounded on the lateral side by the lentiform nucleus, and on the medial side by the head of the caudate nucleus (in front) and the thalamus (back). The internal capsule is formed by projection fibers connecting the cerebral cortex with other parts of the central nervous system. The fibers of the ascending pathways, diverging in different directions to the cerebral cortex, form the corona radiata.

Downward, the fibers of the descending pathways of the internal capsule in the form of compact bundles are directed to the peduncle of the midbrain.

Fig.9. Fornix and hippocampus.

1 – corpus callosum, 2 – nucleus of the fornix, 3 – crus of the fornix, 4 – anterior commissure, 5 – column of the fornix, 6 – mastoid body, 7 – fimbria of the hippocampus, 8 – uncus, 9 – dentate gyrus, 10 – parahippocampal gyrus, 11 – hippocampal peduncle, 12 – hippocampus, 13 – lateral ventricle (opened), 14 – bird’s spur, 15 – fornix commissure.

Please note that the cavities of the cerebral hemispheres are the lateral ventricles

(I and II), located in the thickness of the white matter under the corpus callosum (Fig. 11).
Each ventricle has four parts: the anterior horn
lies in the frontal lobe, the central part in the parietal lobe,
the posterior horn
in the occipital lobe, and
the inferior horn
in the temporal lobe.
The anterior horn of both ventricles is separated from the adjacent one by two plates of a transparent septum. The central part of the lateral ventricle bends from above around the thalamus, forms an arc and passes posteriorly into the posterior horn, downwards into the inferior horn. The medial wall of the inferior horn is the hippocampus
(a section of the ancient cortex), corresponding to the deep groove of the same name on the medial surface of the hemisphere.
The fimbria stretches medially along the hippocampus, which is a continuation of the crus of the fornix (Fig.). On the medial wall of the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain there is a protrusion - a bird's spur
, corresponding to the calcarine groove on the medial surface of the hemisphere. The choroid plexus protrudes into the central part and lower horn of the lateral ventricle, which through the interventricular foramen connects with the choroid plexus of the third ventricle.

Fig. 10. Projection of the ventricles on the surface of the cerebrum.

1–frontal lobe, 2–central sulcus, 3–lateral ventricle, 4–occipital lobe, 5–posterior horn of the lateral ventricle, 6–IV ventricle, 7–brain aqueduct, 8–III ventricle, 9–central part of the lateral ventricle, 10 – inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, 11 – anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.

Fig. 11. Frontal section of the brain at the level of the central part of the lateral ventricles.

1–central part of the lateral ventricle, 2–choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle, 3–anterior villous artery, 4–internal cerebral vein, 5–fornix, 6–corpus callosum, 7–vascular base of the third ventricle, 8–choroid plexus of the third ventricle, 9 – III ventricle, 10 – thalamus, 11 – attached plate, 12 – thalamostriatal vein, 13 – caudate nucleus.

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Date added: 2016-12-16; views: 5349; ORDER A WORK WRITING

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Anatomy and physiology of the basal ganglia

The structure of the basal ganglia in the brain was studied in a longitudinal section. During the studies, the structural components of the nucleus were correlated with the performance of certain functions.

Scientists have divided the structural units into groups, which are included in one of the systems with their own narrowly focused functionality. The striopallidal system includes: the globus pallidus, the caudate nucleus and the putamen. The limbic system includes: the amygdala and the fence.

The striopallidal system is part of the extrapyramidal system; their combination ensures the coordinated functioning of the motor nerve centers.

The limbic system, in turn, is responsible for regulating processes in the internal organs, and also controls higher mental activity.

Caudate nucleus

The caudate nucleus is a paired structure and also belongs directly to the terminal part of the brain. Anatomically located in front of the visual tuberosities.

Structure:

• Internal capsule - serves as a border with the thalamic region, presented in the form of a white stripe;
• The head is a kind of thickening that is the front part of the structure. Serves as a lateral wall for the anterior horn of the cerebral ventricle. The lower part is connected to the lenticular nucleus;
• The body is a narrow part after thickening, located in the central part of the cerebral ventricle;
• Tail – continues after the body.

The fence, caudate nucleus and lenticular nucleus, together form the striatum (striatum).

Lenticular nucleus

The structure runs parallel to the caudate nucleus, but closer to the tail it merges with it. The lenticular nucleus contains two layers of white matter, which in turn divide the structure into three parts:

• The shell has a darker color;
• 2 cerebral plates – the more common name is globus pallidus.

The structure also contains spots that are directly related to the borderline system (limbic).

Fence

The structural unit is part of the limbic system and is presented in the form of a thin layer of nerve bundles. The fence is located in the center of the brain - in the insula region. The boundary is a layer of axon bundles and a capsule.

Amygdala

It is shaped like an amygdala, which is why it got its characteristic name. Located in the thickness of the white matter in the temporal region - under the shell. The brain contains two amygdalae, which are symmetrically located in each hemisphere, but have different functional orientations.

The structure enters directly into the limbic system, but also has multiple connections with other parts of the central nervous system and cranial nerves. The amygdala is the most studied structure and has some gender differences - its size is larger in men, but its peak development occurs faster in women.

Divisions of the brain

The large hemispheres are divided into four zones. The picture below shows the location of the lobes of the cerebral cortex:

1. The frontal part is indicated in blue.
2. Violet – parietal region.
3. Red – occipital zone.
4. Yellow – temporal lobe.

Table of brain regions

The table of brain sections presents the main functions of the higher organ. The slightest malfunction of the nervous system leads to serious complications and adversely affects the entire human body. Let's consider the most common pathologies associated with impaired brain activity.

Functions of the basal ganglia

The main functions of the basal ganglia are to regulate and maintain the functioning of all life support systems and organs. But since the basal ganglia also interact with other brain structures, as well as various systems, the functional orientation is complemented by a regulatory set.

General functionality of the basal ganglia in the brain:

• Control and regulation of motor skills, including fine motor skills and complex postures;
• Regulation of the autonomic nervous system;
• Participation in the processes of higher nervous activity;
• Activation of neurotransmitters during concentrated work (impulse transmission).

The basal ganglia in the brain have one feature - when a person is in a state of complete rest (sleep), they suspend their work. Some scientists correlate this ability as a connection with consciousness, but there has been no confirmation so far.

Main functions of the lentiform nucleus

The functional significance of the nucleus lentiformis should be considered according to the function of its components. The shell, being a later formed formation, has an inhibitory effect on the globus pallidus.

The latter, in turn, is responsible for the following processes:

• regulation of movement and muscle tone;
• activity of facial muscles, emotional reactions;
• participation in the regulation of the functioning of internal organs, especially the heart, blood vessels, and gastrointestinal tract;
• integration of the activities of various body systems.

Accordingly, the shell reduces the above influences of the globus pallidus. She also takes part in organizing eating behavior.

The striopallidal system influences the muscular system in the following way:

• selects the most comfortable poses for a specific situation;
• regulates the ratio of tone of different muscle groups;
• determines the proportionality of movements in time and space;
• controls the accuracy and smooth execution of actions.

It is this system that coordinates the work of all the basal ganglia.

Symptoms of basal ganglia dysfunction

The subcortical ganglia, along with other brain structures, are subject to various primary and secondary pathologies. And since their functionality mainly consists of maintaining the autonomic nervous system, the general condition of a person directly depends on the healthy functioning of the nerve connections.

Symptoms of the pathology increase gradually and quite often patients do not pay attention to them at the initial stage. Calcification of the basal ganglia is considered a sluggish process, since a long period of time is required for the accumulation of calcifications on the surface of the nucleus.

Progressive pathologies include corticobasal degeneration. The clinical picture increases gradually, with an increase in the number of self-destruction of nerve cells.

All clinical manifestations of pathology of the basal ganglia are divided into two groups: hyper or hypokinetic disorders.

General symptoms:

• Various movement disorders - tremor, impaired sense of balance, atony or hypertonicity of muscles, erratic movements, pathological postures;
• Changes in the emotional sphere - apathy or depression;
• Feeling tired (broken);
• Disturbances in the functioning of vital centers (blood circulation, breathing);
• Speech center disorder;
• Poor facial expressions;
• Inadequate assessment of one's behavior.

Symptoms can also be supplemented by general cerebral manifestations, since the basal ganglia of the brain function in conjunction with other structures and systems.

Pathological states of nuclei

The causes of nuclear pathology in the brain are numerous infections and traumatic brain injuries, and congenital anomalies cannot be ruled out.

In patients with pathologies of the basal ganglia of the brain, there are signs of irritation - the damaged nervous tissue does not respond to various stimuli (external or internal), as a result of which spontaneous outbreaks of irritation occur in the cerebral cortex without an obvious source.

The most common diseases:

• Cortical paralysis - the striopallidal system is affected, resulting in convulsive syndrome. A characteristic feature is the proboscis symptom and involuntary head movements;
• Parkinson's disease is a progressive degenerative disease where neurons die and dopamine production stops. The muscles become rigid, as a result of which the patient suffers from various movement disorders;
• Hethington's disease is a genetic disease that, in addition to muscular manifestations, is combined with mental personality disorders.

To treat diseases, complex therapy is selected, which also includes correctional work with a psychologist and speech therapist. Thanks to complex work, the irritation of the nervous system is restored and the correct physiological reaction is formed.

Diagnosis and prognosis of pathology

An initial examination based on the patient’s complaints is carried out by a neurologist. To differentiate the pathology, the patient is sent for functional diagnostics:

1. CT or MRI of brain structures.
2. Angiography or ultrasound examination of the vessels of the brain and neck.
3. EEG.

The prognosis for life with pathologies of the basal ganglia depends on many factors (gender, concomitant diseases, age), including the compensatory capabilities of the body, which are individual.

For positive dynamics during rehabilitation, it is important not only the timeliness of the diagnosis, but also the characteristics of the disease. Most pathologies, unfortunately, cannot be treated and it is only possible to carry out a course of maintenance therapy.

According to statistics, depending on the type of pathology, patients have a 50/50 chance, that is, half of the cases have an unfavorable prognosis for life, the other part of the patients has a chance of returning to normal life after long-term rehabilitation.